“For some children, however, tasks of a deictic nature remain problematic, particularly those involving reference to persons. These children, especially the autistic, appear to find it difficult to have a clear view of them, are disorientated or cannot grasp the linguistic means of indication. Adults suffering from disorientation, dementia and aphasia may also experience some degree of deictic confusion, or may not have access to the requisite linguistic forms. In order to appreciate the importance of deixis, imagine discussing to collect someone from a train without using the words he, she, him, her or any that refers to time or place. ‘This’, ‘That’, ‘These’, ‘Those’, are not particularly important when people are together in the same activity and can physically point to what they are interested in, but small words of this kind gain in importance when nonverbal communication does not form part of the interaction and are culturally expected even when it does. Deictic terms make story-telling possible, enable us to make arrangements, facilitate the giving and receiving of instructions, directions and advice and enable us to establish a joint focus of attention with communicative partners. Thus anyone lacking the ability to think deictically or to comprehend or convey deixis linguistically is likely to appear uncooperative or fundamentally uncommunicative.”[6]
3The classification of deixis in conversation
According to the conclusion of Fillmore and Levinson, the deixis can be divided into five parts: “(a) Person deixis: using a word to indicate the figure of the participant; (b) Time deixis: using a word to indicate the time relative with the speaking time; (c) Place deixis: using a word to indicate the space relative with the place where the participants stay; (d) Discourse deixis: using words to express a part of the utterance, and these words are included in the utterances; (e) Social deixis: using words to indicate the social differences relative with the participants. And the small differences of social status between speakers and hearers can be shown.”[7]
3. 1 Personal deixis in conversation
Personal deixis includes three kinds: the first personal deixis including speakers; the second personal deixis including hearers; the third personal deixis excluding speakers and hearers. People should pay attention to the point that the third personal deixis is not the same with the first and second deixis for there are not corresponding figures of participants in linguistic events. Now let’s have a look at the application of the three kinds of personal deixis.
3. 1. 1 The first personal deixis in conversation
People will find that the grammatical scale of plural in the first personal deixis is not used as regularly as in the third personal deixis. The meaning of “They” is that the third personal is not one, while “We” is not less than a speaker. “The plural of first personal pronoun includes we-inclusive-of-addressee and we-exclusive-of-addressee.”[8] But this differentiation in English is shown indirectly, not directly. The abbreviation of “Let us”----“let’s” seems only to fit the occasion that “us” is comprehended as we-inclusive-of addressee. For example:
(1) The conversation is made between two friends.
A: Jim, I heard that tonight there is an interesting movie. Let’s go to the cinema.
B: Really? It’s great! Why not go there?
(2) The father is phoning his son.
A: Dad, I am so lonely here, without any friends around me. I miss you and mother deeply. Can you go and see me?
B: No problem. Let’s go to see you tomorrow.
A: Great! I am looking forward to your coming.
3. 1. 2 The second personal deixis in conversation
The second personal deixis has the differentiation of “T”—“V” in Chinese and many European languages. They are respectively used in different occasions and express different emotions. They are mainly decided by the relation between social occasion and both sides of conversation. This will be discussed in the section of social deixis. But here people should know that when the second personal deixis is vocatives, it can be used as summonses and addresses in different context. For example:
(1) Two neighbors are quarrelling for the car.
A: Hey you, you just scratched my car with your Frisbee.
B: What? Oh no. You are just making a joke to me, aren’t you?
A: Joke? Don’t you see my anger in the eyes? You should apologize to me for what you have done, otherwise, let’s your friends see you in jail.
(2) A man gives his acknowledge.
A: I’d be very grateful, sir, for your advice.
B: It’s my pleasure. Don’t take it in your heart, my baby.
This kind of differentiation is the indication of gestural usage and symbolic usage on addresses. Addresses are usually at the beginning of the sentences. It can be regarded as an independent linguistic act. Addresses are a kind of parenthesis. It may be able to be used as summonses, but not any summonses can be used as addresses. Such as “Hey you” in (1) cannot appear in the place of “sir” in (2).
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