2 Pragmatic transfer of language
Pragmatic transfer is a domain of Interlanguage Pragmatics, which studies nonnative speakers’ comprehension and production of speech acts and how their L2 related speech act knowledge is acquired.
2.1 The definition of pragmatic transfer
Pragmatic transfer is closely related to pragmatics, which studies language in use,i.e.,“the function of linguistic utterances and the propositions that are expressed by them, depending upon their use in specific situations” and pragmatics” became almost exclusively identified with speech act theory”[6]. As a matter of fact, studies of pragmatic transfer usually deal with the use of some speech acts such as inviting, apologizing, greeting, or thanking. Pragmatic transfer, therefore, treats of language in use, indicating how L1 pragmatic knowledge is projected in L2 cases.
In the meantime, pragmatic transfer is often seen as a subcategory of language transfer, which occurs in various linguistic subsystems. Pragmatic transfer can be defined as the influence of learners’ native language knowledge on their interlanguage pragmatic performance, particularly of speech acts. In other words, it is the process that learners transfer the rules of L1 use into their use of L2 speech acts.
2.2 The classification of pragmatic transfer
The first attempt at a classification of pragmatic transfer was attributed to Kasper who held that pragmatic transfer manifested itself in two ways or categories, namely pragmalinguistic transfer and sociopragmatic transfer.
2.2.1 Pragmalinguistic transfer
Pragmalinguistic transfer is the influence of the learner’s knowledge about the illocutionary force or politeness value assigned to particular linguistic form-functions in native language, which, when mapped by learners into the perception and production of a similar situation in target language, sounds different to native speakers. Pragmalinguistic transfer is the transfer of linguistic forms of native language into L2 speaking, though the speaker knows exactly the cultural patterns of the two languages. Pragmalinguistic transfer is caused by the lack of appropriate means of expression in L2 learners’ performance of a certain speech act. Due to the lack of means of expression, in Chinese students’ English writings we can see inappropriately used the expression “Excuse me” instead of suitable expressions such as “I’m sorry”. The two expressions “Excuse me” and “I’m sorry” are not used in the same contexts in English, though they are both translated into Chinese as “对不起”. In English, “Excuse me” can be a polite expression used when starting to speak to a stranger, when one wants to get past a person, or when one disagrees with something they have said; but “I’m sorry” can be used for expressing polite refusal.
However, “对不起” in Chinese is used for all the situations in which “Excuse me” and “I’m sorry” can be used in English, so the Chinese may have difficulty following the pragmatic rules and using the appropriate expressions in English.
2.2.2 Sociopragmatic transfer
Sociopragmatic transfer is the transfer of L1 cultural knowledge into L2 speaking. It has been found in learners’ perceptions of differences in interlocutors’ cultural background, such as interlocutors’ relative social status, and the social context in which one needs to express gratitude.
Let’s cite an example in Chinese students’ English writings for sociopragmatic transfer. When a student want to express a refusal to an invitation usually use “No, please do not go to any trouble”. The expression followed the Chinese cultural pattern but violated English cultural paradigm. In English culture, the possible response to express acceptance is “Yes, please” and express refusal is “No, thank you”. In Chinese, however, the responses suitable for an offer can be “好的，谢谢” when one accepts it, or “不，请不要麻烦了” when one refuses it.
Generally speaking, the two types of pragmatic are not completely exclusive. Sometimes it is very hard to draw a clear line between them. Not limited to one kind of pragmatic transfer, learners may simultaneously transfer their L1 linguistic pattern as well as cultural pattern into their L2 speaking. As the intercultural communication is developing fast, there is a more accelerating need to learn the way that certain speech acts should be carried out. Therefore, we are more concerned about pragmatic strategies used to achieve the illocutionary force, and about pragmatic transfer in the use of these strategies.
2.3 Pragmatic transfer in three levels
As we know that pragmatic transfer is a process that learners transfer the rules of L1 use into their use of L2 speech acts, so we can investigate it from aspects of lexical level, syntactic level and discourse level. In the next part of this paper, the author will discuss the three levels in details.
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